Exploring Literary Schools of Criticism: Types of Literary Theory

Introduction

Literary theory serves as a vital lens through which we can explore and interpret the vast tapestry of literature, enriching our understanding of texts beyond their surface meanings. Rooted in diverse philosophical, cultural, and historical contexts, literary criticism encompasses a myriad of schools of thought, each offering unique insights into the intricacies of language, narrative, and form.

From the structuralist emphasis on the underlying structures of language to postcolonial critiques that interrogate power dynamics in literature, the landscape of literary theory is vibrant and multifaceted. As we delve into this exploration of literary schools of criticism, we will examine how these theoretical frameworks not only enhance our appreciation of literary works but also reflect the evolving societal values and ideologies of their time.

Theoretical Foundations of Literary Criticism

Definition and Scope of Literary Theory

Examining Literary Work Through Critical Theory.

Literary theory forms the backbone of literary studies, providing frameworks for analyzing and interpreting texts. By applying critical theory, scholars delve into the deeper layers of a literary work, exploring themes, symbols, and cultural influences. It emphasizes how literature reflects and shapes human thought, society, and identity.

Critical theory approaches literature as a cultural artifact, examining the ways in which texts engage with philosophical and ideological concerns. For example:

• Psychoanalytic criticism focuses on subconscious motives and psychological patterns in characters.
• Marxist criticism uncovers economic and class dynamics within literary texts.
• Structuralism identifies the underlying structures of language and narrative.

By using these methods, critical theory expands our understanding of a text’s significance beyond its surface meaning.

Understanding Schools of Literary Criticism

Schools of literary criticism refer to different theoretical approaches used to analyze and interpret literature. These schools emphasize distinct aspects of a text:

• Formalism: Highlights the intrinsic features of the literary work, such as form, style, and structure, without considering external influences.
• Reader-Response Criticism: Examines the interaction between the text and its reader, focusing on personal interpretation.
• Feminist and Gender Studies: Explore themes of gender identity and power dynamics within the text.
  Each school of criticism provides a unique lens, enabling diverse interpretations of literary works.

The Role of Literary Critics in Shaping the Literary Canon

Literary critics play a pivotal role in defining what constitutes the literary canon—a collection of texts deemed essential for understanding a culture or period. By employing various schools of literary criticism, critics evaluate and interpret literary texts, determining their artistic, cultural, and historical significance.

This process often influences which works are taught in educational settings and preserved for future generations. Critics’ analyses not only shape literary studies but also ensure the continuous evolution of literary theory and criticism.

Historical Development of Literary Criticism

From Aristotle’s Poetics to Modern Literary Analysis

The roots of literary criticism lie in Aristotle’s Poetics, where he analyzed the components of tragedy and narrative. Aristotle emphasized concepts such as unity, coherence, and catharsis, laying the groundwork for future discussions on literary structure and poetics.

As literary theory evolved, these early ideas became central to various schools of criticism, including formalism and structuralism. Aristotle’s influence is evident in modern discussions on narrative techniques and literary devices.

Friedrich’s Influence and Continental Philosophy

The 19th-century philosopher Friedrich Schlegel contributed significantly to literary theory through his exploration of Romanticism and aesthetic criticism. His work intersected with continental philosophy, emphasizing the importance of imagination, emotion, and subjectivity in literary analysis.

Continental philosophers like Friedrich Nietzsche and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel further shaped critical theory by examining the intersections of literature, culture, and philosophy. These contributions helped expand the scope of literary criticism into broader cultural and existential realms.

Twentieth-Century Shifts in Literary Theory and Criticism

The 20th century witnessed dramatic shifts in literary criticism, marked by the rise of modernist and postmodernist theories. Schools like Russian formalism and New Criticism emerged, focusing on the text itself rather than the author’s intention or historical context.

Key developments included:

• New Criticism: Introduced the concept of “close reading,” emphasizing textual analysis without external influences.
• Structuralism: Analyzed the underlying structures that shape narratives and literary language.

These changes reflected a broader interest in scientific approaches to literature, combining linguistics, semiotics, and poetics to uncover deeper meanings.

The Evolution of Structuralism and Post-Structuralism

Structuralism, influenced by Ferdinand de Saussure’s linguistic theories, sought to identify the underlying systems governing literature. It argued that texts are part of larger cultural and linguistic systems.

Post-structuralism, led by figures like Jacques Derrida, challenged these ideas, emphasizing the instability of meaning and the role of deconstruction in literary analysis. This school of criticism remains influential in contemporary literary studies, offering new ways to interpret texts and challenge established norms.

This detailed exploration highlights how literary theory and schools of literary criticism provide essential tools for understanding literature’s role in culture and society. These foundations continue to evolve, ensuring literature remains a dynamic field of study.

Classical Schools of Literary Criticism

Formalism and New Criticism

Core Principles of Close Reading

Close reading, a central method in Formalism and New Criticism, involves analyzing a literary text in meticulous detail, focusing exclusively on the text itself. This approach emphasizes:

• Language and Structure: Analyzing how literary devices, such as metaphors, imagery, and syntax, contribute to the overall meaning.
• Unity and Coherence: Understanding how various elements of the text work together to create a cohesive whole.
• Elimination of External Contexts: Excluding the author’s biography, historical background, or cultural influences to prioritize the text’s internal dynamics.

Close reading remains a foundational skill in literary analysis, teaching students how to appreciate the complexity and artistry of a literary work.

Intentional and Affective Fallacies in Literary Texts

New Criticism introduced the concepts of intentional and affective fallacies to refine textual interpretation:

• Intentional Fallacy: Rejects reliance on the author’s intentions to determine a text’s meaning. The focus is on what the text itself conveys.
• Affective Fallacy: Warns against basing interpretation solely on the reader’s emotional response, as it may distort the text’s intrinsic value.

These principles underscore the autonomy of the literary text, treating it as a self-contained artifact whose meaning is derived through close analysis rather than external factors.

The Legacy of New Critics

The New Critics revolutionized literary studies by advocating for a more scientific and objective approach to literary criticism. Their contributions include:

• Establishing formalist analysis as a dominant academic practice in the mid-20th century.
• Popularizing close reading as an essential tool for literary interpretation.
• Influencing the structure of English literature curricula by prioritizing canonical works for their textual richness.

Though modern literary theory has moved beyond some of their tenets, New Criticism’s emphasis on textual integrity and detailed analysis remains integral to literary studies.

Russian Formalism and Semiotics

Underlying Structures in Literary Analysis

Russian Formalism emphasized the mechanics of literary works, focusing on how a text is constructed rather than its content or meaning. Key principles include:

• Defamiliarization: A technique that makes the familiar appear unfamiliar, forcing readers to perceive ordinary elements in new ways.
• Form Over Content: Analyzing the artistic devices and narrative techniques that structure a literary work.

Russian Formalists, such as Viktor Shklovsky and Roman Jakobson, argued that literature’s uniqueness lies in its form, which distinguishes it from other forms of discourse.

Ferdinand de Saussure and Like Language Concepts

Ferdinand de Saussure’s linguistic theories profoundly influenced structuralism and semiotics, particularly through concepts like:

• Signifier and Signified: The idea that language consists of a relationship between the word (signifier) and its associated concept (signified).
• Arbitrariness of the Sign: The recognition that the relationship between signifier and signified is arbitrary, determined by cultural conventions rather than inherent meaning.

These theories laid the groundwork for analyzing literature as a system of signs, where meaning arises from the interplay between elements within the text.

Structuralist Approach to Literature

Structuralism, building on Saussure’s ideas, examines the underlying systems that shape literary texts. Key elements include:

• Binary Oppositions: Exploring contrasts, such as good vs. evil, to understand the structure of narratives.
• Universal Patterns: Identifying recurring archetypes and themes across different literary works.
• Interconnected Systems: Viewing literature as part of a broader cultural and linguistic network.

Structuralism provides a scientific lens for analyzing literature, making it possible to uncover the universal principles governing narrative and meaning. This approach continues to influence modern literary theory, intersecting with post-structuralism and deconstruction.

These classical schools of literary criticism—Formalism, New Criticism, and Russian Formalism—redefined the study of literature by emphasizing textual analysis and structural insights. Their legacy persists in contemporary approaches, offering a foundation for understanding the intricate dynamics of literary texts.

Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism

Freud’s Theories in Literary Studies

Neurosis and Subconscious Elements in Literary Work

Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theories laid the groundwork for understanding the subconscious in literature. Freud proposed that literary works often reflect the inner conflicts, repressed desires, and neuroses of the author or characters. Key ideas include:

• The Unconscious Mind: Literature is seen as a space where repressed emotions and desires emerge, often symbolically.
• Dream Analysis: Literary texts function like dreams, containing latent (hidden) and manifest (visible) content.
• Oedipus Complex: The dynamics of familial relationships and unresolved childhood issues often feature in literary narratives.

Freud’s ideas help in dissecting the psychological depth of characters, offering insights into their motivations and inner struggles.

Jacques Lacan and the Mirror Stage in Literary Criticism

Jacques Lacan expanded Freud’s theories, emphasizing the role of language and the symbolic order in shaping identity. His concept of the Mirror Stage is pivotal in psychoanalytic literary criticism:

• Mirror Stage: This developmental phase occurs when an individual recognizes themselves in a mirror, leading to the formation of the “I” or self. In literature, this reflects the fragmented identities of characters as they attempt to construct a coherent sense of self.
• The Symbolic Order: Lacan highlighted how language structures the psyche, influencing characters’ desires and conflicts.

Lacan’s theories enable critics to analyze how identity, language, and desire interplay within a literary text, enriching psychoanalytic interpretations.

Psychoanalytic Interpretation of Texts

Authorial Intention vs. Reader Interpretation

In psychoanalytic criticism, debates often arise over whether the focus should be on the author’s subconscious intentions or the reader’s psychological response to the text. Key perspectives include:

• Authorial Intention: Critics argue that the text reflects the psyche of the author, including their neuroses, desires, and anxieties.
• Reader Interpretation: Others focus on how the reader’s subconscious mind interacts with the text, interpreting symbols and themes through personal experiences.

Both approaches highlight the dynamic interaction between the text, its creator, and its audience, emphasizing the psychological dimensions of literature.

Psychoanalytic Criticism in the Context of Modern Literary Analysis

Psychoanalytic literary criticism remains relevant in modern literary studies, adapting to contemporary themes and perspectives:

• Exploration of Trauma: Modern texts often address psychological trauma, providing fertile ground for psychoanalytic analysis.
• Gender and Identity: Concepts like Freud’s neurosis and Lacan’s symbolic order intersect with feminist and queer theories to explore how characters negotiate gender and identity.
• Cross-Cultural Analysis: Psychoanalysis is applied to global literary traditions, examining how different cultures express universal psychological struggles.

Modern psychoanalytic criticism has evolved beyond its Freudian roots, integrating new perspectives to deepen our understanding of literary works and their psychological intricacies.

Psychoanalytic literary criticism, with its roots in Freud and Lacan’s theories, provides profound insights into the subconscious elements of literature. By focusing on neuroses, desires, and symbolic structures, this school of criticism continues to illuminate the psychological depths of literary texts, shaping how we interpret character, narrative, and meaning.

Socio-Political Schools of Criticism

Marxist Literary Criticism

Understanding Class Struggles in Literary Work

Marxist literary criticism focuses on the economic and social structures within a text, highlighting the class struggles depicted in literary works. Central themes include:

• Capitalism and Exploitation: How economic systems create inequalities and influence characters’ lives.
• Oppressor vs. Oppressed: The dynamics of power and subjugation are often central to literary analysis.
• Class Consciousness: The ways in which characters become aware of their social positions and resist systemic oppression.

By examining these elements, Marxist critics uncover how literature reflects and critiques societal power structures.

Analyzing Literature Produced Through Historical Context

Marxist criticism emphasizes understanding the historical context in which a literary work was produced. This involves:

• Material Conditions: Exploring how the economic realities of the time influence the text.
• Cultural Hegemony: How dominant ideologies are perpetuated through literature.
• Historical Materialism: Investigating the material forces shaping the narrative.

This approach situates the literary work within its socio-political environment, revealing how it mirrors or critiques its era.

The Legacy of Marxism in Modern Literary Studies

The impact of Marxism on modern literary studies is profound. Key contributions include:

• Intersectionality: Marxist ideas have informed feminist, post-colonial, and cultural critiques by emphasizing power and inequality.
• Global Perspectives: It has expanded literary criticism to include works from previously marginalized voices.
• Contemporary Relevance: In a world grappling with economic inequality, Marxist criticism remains a vital tool for analyzing literature’s engagement with capitalism and power.

Feminist and Gender Studies

Gender Identity and the Literary Canon

Feminist criticism interrogates how gender roles and identities are constructed and represented in literary texts. This includes:

• Representation of Women: Analyzing how female characters are portrayed and whether they challenge or conform to stereotypes.
• Gender Identity: Exploring themes of masculinity, femininity, and non-binary identities.
• Canon Formation: Questioning the exclusion of women writers from the literary canon and advocating for a more inclusive perspective.

Feminist criticism challenges patriarchal norms, seeking to redefine the boundaries of literary studies.

Feminist Criticism and Its Evolution

Feminist literary criticism has evolved significantly since its inception:

• First Wave: Focused on recovering works by women writers and analyzing their contributions.
• Second Wave: Emphasized gender as a social construct and critiqued male-dominated narratives.
• Third Wave and Beyond: Intersects with queer theory, post-colonial criticism, and cultural studies, exploring complex intersections of identity and power.

Modern feminist criticism addresses diverse issues, such as race, sexuality, and intersectionality, broadening its analytical scope.

Queer Theory and Contemporary Literary Analysis

Queer theory, an offshoot of feminist criticism, examines how literature represents non-normative sexualities and challenges traditional notions of gender. Key concerns include:

• Subverting Heteronormativity: Exploring how texts resist or reinforce conventional ideas of sexuality.
• Identity and Desire: Analyzing the fluidity of identity and its relationship to power and societal expectations.
• Queer Readings: Offering alternative interpretations that highlight marginalized voices.

This approach enriches literary studies by promoting diversity and challenging established norms.

Cultural Studies and Post-Colonial Criticism

Colonialism and Literature Through Cultural Theory

Post-colonial criticism investigates how literature reflects the legacies of colonialism and imperialism. It focuses on:

• Representation of the Colonized: How colonized peoples and cultures are depicted in literature.
• Eurocentrism: Critiquing the dominance of Western perspectives in the literary canon.
• Resistance and Agency: Exploring how texts challenge colonial ideologies.

This school of criticism highlights the power dynamics embedded in literature, offering a more inclusive view of global narratives.

Interpreting Literature and Culture Beyond the Line

Cultural studies broaden literary criticism by analyzing texts within their broader cultural contexts. Key themes include:

• Media and Popular Culture: How literature interacts with other cultural forms.
• Identity and Power: Examining the interplay of race, gender, and class in literature.
• Cultural Hegemony: Understanding how literature both perpetuates and resists dominant ideologies.

By moving beyond traditional literary boundaries, cultural studies enrich our understanding of literature’s societal impact.

Post-Structuralist and Deconstructionist Perspective

Post-structuralism and deconstruction challenge the fixed meanings of texts, emphasizing their inherent instability. Key concepts include:

• Multiplicity of Meaning: Texts have no singular interpretation but are open to multiple readings.
• Intertextuality: Literature is interconnected with other texts, reflecting and reshaping meaning.
• Subverting Binary Oppositions: Deconstruction critiques the hierarchical structures in language and thought.

These perspectives encourage readers to approach texts critically, questioning their assumptions and uncovering deeper complexities.

Socio-political schools of criticism, including Marxist, feminist, and cultural studies, provide essential tools for analyzing literature’s engagement with power, identity, and culture. By addressing issues like class, gender, and colonialism, these approaches ensure that literary criticism remains relevant to contemporary societal challenges.

Modern and Postmodern Literary Criticism

Postmodernism and Deconstruction

Jacques Derrida’s Influence on Literary Theory

Jacques Derrida revolutionized literary criticism with his theory of deconstruction, a cornerstone of postmodernism. Deconstruction emphasizes the instability of meaning in texts and challenges the assumption of fixed interpretations. Key concepts include:

• Differánce: The idea that meaning is deferred and constructed through the interplay of language rather than fixed within the text itself.
• Binary Oppositions: Deconstruction critiques the hierarchical binaries (e.g., male/female, good/evil) that dominate traditional interpretations of literature.
• Intertextuality: Texts are interconnected, and meaning arises from their relationships with other texts and cultural contexts.

Derrida’s work encourages readers to question assumptions, uncover contradictions, and explore multiple interpretations of literary texts.

Beyond the Line: New Historicism in Literary Criticism

New Historicism, influenced by Michel Foucault and other postmodern thinkers, examines literature within its historical and cultural contexts. It challenges the idea that literature is autonomous, arguing instead that texts are shaped by and shape their socio-political environments. Key aspects include:

• Interplay Between Texts and Contexts: Literature is seen as a product of its time, reflecting historical events, cultural ideologies, and power dynamics.
• Microhistories: Analyzing everyday experiences and marginal voices within historical contexts.
• Power and Discourse: Inspired by Foucault, New Historicism investigates how power and knowledge are constructed and represented in literary works.

This approach provides a nuanced understanding of how literature interacts with history and culture.

Gender Studies and Postmodern Literary Theory

Postmodernism’s emphasis on multiplicity and fluidity has significantly influenced gender studies in literary criticism. Key themes include:

• Fluidity of Gender Identity: Postmodern theorists reject binary notions of gender, exploring its socially constructed and performative nature.
• Intersectionality: Examining how gender intersects with race, class, and other identity markers in literature.
• Subversion of Norms: Literature is analyzed for its potential to disrupt traditional gender roles and challenge societal norms.

Postmodern gender studies promote diverse and inclusive interpretations of literary texts, addressing the complexities of identity and representation.

Contemporary Approaches to Literary Studies

Examining Literature Through Cultural Studies

Cultural studies expand the scope of literary criticism by analyzing how literature interacts with various cultural phenomena, including media, politics, and societal trends. Key features include:

• Representation and Ideology: Exploring how literature reflects and perpetuates cultural ideologies.
• Popular Culture: Examining the relationship between high art (literature) and popular culture.
• Global Perspectives: Considering how cultural and geopolitical contexts shape literary production and interpretation.

This interdisciplinary approach broadens the understanding of literature’s role in shaping and reflecting culture.

Literary Analysis in the Context of 2025

Contemporary literary analysis increasingly integrates modern themes and technologies:

• Digital Literature: Exploring texts produced in digital formats, such as hypertext fiction and interactive narratives.
• Climate and Environmental Concerns: Analyzing literature addressing ecological issues and sustainability.
• Global and Marginalized Voices: Highlighting works from underrepresented cultures and perspectives in the global literary canon.

In 2025, literary criticism continues to evolve, addressing pressing social and technological changes that shape the human experience.

The Role of LibGuides and Online Resources

LibGuides and other online resources have become invaluable tools for contemporary literary studies. Their contributions include:

• Access to Scholarly Materials: Providing curated collections of academic articles, books, and critical essays.
• Interdisciplinary Resources: Connecting literature with fields such as history, sociology, and cultural studies.
• Facilitating Research Skills: Helping students and scholars navigate the vast array of information available in modern literary studies.

These digital tools democratize access to knowledge, ensuring that literary analysis remains relevant and accessible in the digital age.

Modern and postmodern literary criticism, encompassing deconstruction, New Historicism, and contemporary approaches, provides a rich toolkit for analyzing texts. By engaging with issues of identity, culture, and digital transformation, these frameworks ensure that literature remains a vital medium for understanding and critiquing the complexities of the modern world.

Global Perspectives on Literary Criticism

Influences from Arabic and Indian Traditions

Ibn’s Works: Kitab al-Badi and Al-Bayan wa-‘l-Tabyin

Arabic literary criticism has a rich heritage, exemplified by the works of Ibn al-Mu’tazz and Al-Jahiz.

• Kitab al-Badi by Ibn al-Mu’tazz introduced the concept of stylistic innovation in Arabic poetry. It highlighted literary devices such as metaphor, simile, and parallelism, emphasizing the artistic aspects of language.
• Al-Bayan wa-‘l-Tabyin by Al-Jahiz explored eloquence and clarity in prose, emphasizing the importance of communication in literature. This work is foundational in understanding the aesthetic and functional aspects of Arabic literary traditions.

These texts contributed to a nuanced understanding of how literary devices shape meaning and artistic expression, influencing global perspectives on poetics.

The Natya Shastra and Its Modern Implications

The Natya Shastra, attributed to Bharata, is a foundational text in Indian aesthetics and performance theory. It outlines the principles of drama, dance, and poetry, focusing on:

• Rasa Theory: The emotional experience evoked in an audience, central to literary and artistic appreciation.
• Structural Elements: Detailed guidelines on plot, character development, and dramatic techniques.

Modern interpretations of the Natya Shastra extend its relevance to global literary criticism, providing insights into storytelling, cultural representation, and audience engagement in literature and performance arts.

Comparative Literary Studies Across Cultures

Comparative literary studies explore similarities and differences between literary traditions worldwide. Key areas of focus include:

• Intertextuality: How texts from different cultures influence each other.
• Cultural Contexts: Understanding how cultural beliefs and practices shape literary forms and themes.
• Universal Archetypes: Identifying common motifs, such as the hero’s journey, across global literary traditions.

This approach promotes cross-cultural understanding and broadens the scope of literary criticism to encompass diverse voices and perspectives.

The Future of Literary Theory and Criticism

Adapting Critical Theory in an Evolving Literary Landscape

As literature continues to evolve, so must critical theory. Emerging areas of focus include:

• Hybrid Genres: Examining works that blur boundaries between fiction, nonfiction, and multimedia.
• Globalization: Addressing the interplay between local and global influences in literature.
• Social Justice: Critiquing literature through the lens of equity, diversity, and inclusion.

By adapting to these changes, literary theory remains relevant, offering tools to critique and understand contemporary texts.

Incorporating Neuroscience and Cognitive Studies in Literary Analysis

Recent advances in neuroscience and cognitive studies are reshaping how we understand literature’s impact on the human mind. Applications include:

• Reader Engagement: Investigating how narrative structures and literary devices affect emotional and cognitive responses.
• Empathy and Imagination: Exploring how literature fosters empathy by simulating experiences through storytelling.
• Memory and Meaning: Analyzing how readers recall and interpret texts, highlighting the interplay between memory and narrative.

These interdisciplinary approaches deepen our understanding of literature’s psychological and emotional dimensions.

Digital Resources for Examining Literature and Culture

Digital tools and resources are transforming the field of literary criticism, offering unprecedented access to texts and analytical capabilities. Key innovations include:

• Text Mining: Using software to analyze patterns, themes, and linguistic structures in large corpora of texts.
• Digital Archives: Providing access to rare manuscripts, historical documents, and global literary works.
• Online Collaboration: Platforms like LibGuides and JSTOR facilitate research and scholarly exchange across disciplines.

By embracing digital technologies, literary criticism can expand its reach, engage with broader audiences, and foster new methodologies for analyzing texts.

Global perspectives and technological advancements ensure that literary theory and criticism remain dynamic and inclusive. By integrating insights from diverse traditions and emerging technologies, the field continues to explore literature’s enduring role in understanding culture, history, and the human condition.

FAQs

What is Literary Theory?

Literary Theory is a framework for understanding and analyzing literature. It encompasses various types of literary criticism and provides different perspectives on how to interpret texts. By employing various different schools of thought, literary theorists seek to uncover deeper meanings and implications within a work, often examining the history of literature and its cultural context.

What are the main types of literary theory?

There are several types of literary theory, including but not limited to: Formalism, Structuralism, Post-Structuralism, Marxism, Feminism, Psychoanalysis, and Reader Response. Each theory offers unique insights and methodologies for interpreting literature, focusing on elements such as language, societal influences, and psychological factors. Understanding these different schools of theory can enrich one’s reading experience and provide a more comprehensive view of a text.

How do different schools of literary criticism approach texts?

Each different school of literary criticism has its own approach to analyzing texts. For instance, Formalism focuses on the text itself, examining its structure and form without considering external factors. In contrast, Marxist criticism evaluates literature through the lens of class struggle and societal power dynamics. Postcolonial criticism explores the impacts of colonialism on culture and identity. Understanding these methodologies can help readers appreciate the anatomy of criticism and the diverse interpretations of literature.

What is the significance of historical context in literary criticism?

Historical context is crucial in literary criticism as it helps readers understand the context and seeks to understand the circumstances surrounding a text’s creation. This includes the social, political, and economic conditions that influenced the author. By considering the history through literature, critics can pinpoint how specific events or ideologies shaped the narrative, themes, and characters within a work.

What role does hermeneutics play in literary theory?

Hermeneutics is the study of interpretation, particularly of texts. In literary theory, it involves understanding how meaning is constructed and conveyed through language. It emphasizes the importance of the reader’s perspective, suggesting that interpretation is subjective and can vary based on personal experiences. This approach can lead to rich discussions about coherence and unity in a text, as well as the multiplicity of interpretations that can arise.