Introduction
Pancreatitis is a condition where the pancreas becomes inflamed (swollen) over a short period of time. The pancreas is a long, flat gland that sits tucked behind the stomach in the upper abdomen. The pancreas produces enzymes that help digestion and hormones that help regulate the way your body processes sugar (glucose).
Pancreatitis can occur as acute pancreatitis — meaning it appears suddenly and lasts for days. Some people develop chronic pancreatitis, which is pancreatitis that occurs over many years.
Mild cases of pancreatitis improve with treatment, but severe cases can cause life-threatening complications.
This blog post discusses what Pancreatitis is, its symptoms nursing care plans and interventions with some examples .As you follow along, remember that our qualified writers are always ready to help in any of your nursing assignments. All you need to do is place an order with us!
Disclaimer: The information presented in this article is not medical advice; it is meant to act as a quick guide to nursing students for learning purposes only and should not be applied without an approved physician’s consent. Please consult a registered doctor in case you’re looking for medical advice.
Symptoms of Pancreatitis
Signs and symptoms of pancreatitis may vary, depending on which type a patient experiences.
Acute pancreatitis signs and symptoms include:
- Upper abdominal pain
- Abdominal pain that radiates to your back
- Tenderness when touching the abdomen
- Fever
- Rapid pulse
- Nausea
- Vomiting
Chronic pancreatitis signs and symptoms include:
- Upper abdominal pain
- Abdominal pain that feels worse after eating
- Losing weight without trying
- Oily, smelly stools (steatorrhea)
As you continue reading remember that our top and qualified writers are here to help with any of your assignment. All you need to do is place an order with us.
Causes of Pancreatitis
Pancreatitis occurs when digestive enzymes become activated while still in the pancreas, irritating the cells of the pancreas and causing inflammation.
With repeated bouts of acute pancreatitis, damage to the pancreas can occur and lead to chronic pancreatitis. Scar tissue may form in the pancreas, causing loss of function. A poorly functioning pancreas can cause digestion problems and diabetes.
Conditions that can lead to acute pancreatitis include:
- Gallstones
- Alcoholism
- Certain medications
- High triglyceride levels in the blood (hypertriglyceridemia)
- High calcium levels in the blood (hypercalcemia), which may be caused by an overactive parathyroid gland (hyperparathyroidism)
- Pancreatic cancer
- Abdominal surgery
- Cystic fibrosis
- Infection
- Injury to the abdomen
- Obesity
- Trauma
- Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), a procedure used to treat gallstones, also can lead to pancreatitis.
Risk factors for Pancreatitis
Factors that increase the risk of pancreatitis include:
Excessive alcohol consumption. Research shows that heavy alcohol users (people who consume four to five drinks a day) are at increased risk of pancreatitis.
Cigarette smoking. Smokers are, on average, three times more likely to develop chronic pancreatitis compared with nonsmokers.
Obesity. A person is more likely to get pancreatitis if you’re obese.
Diabetes. Having diabetes increases your risk of pancreatitis.
Family history of pancreatitis. The role of genetics is becoming increasingly recognized in chronic pancreatitis. If a person has family members with the condition, the chances increase — especially when combined with other risk factors.
Complications of Pancreatitis
Pancreatitis can cause serious complications, including:
Kidney failure. Acute pancreatitis may cause kidney failure, which can be treated with dialysis if the kidney failure is severe and persistent.
Breathing problems. Acute pancreatitis can cause chemical changes in the body that affect lung function, causing the level of oxygen in the blood to fall to dangerously low levels.
Infection. Acute pancreatitis can make the pancreas vulnerable to bacteria and infection. Pancreatic infections are serious and require intensive treatment, such as surgery to remove the infected tissue.
Pseudocyst. Acute pancreatitis can cause fluid and debris to collect in cyst-like pockets in the pancreas. A large pseudocyst that ruptures can cause internal bleeding and infection complications.
Malnutrition. Both acute and chronic pancreatitis can cause the pancreas to produce fewer enzymes needed to break down and process nutrients from the food eaten. This can lead to malnutrition, diarrhea, and weight loss, even though a person may be eating the same foods or the same amount of food.
Diabetes. Damage to insulin-producing cells in your pancreas from chronic pancreatitis can lead to diabetes, a disease that affects the way the body uses blood sugar.
Pancreatic cancer. Long-standing inflammation in the pancreas caused by chronic pancreatitis is a risk factor for developing pancreatic cancer.
As you continue reading remember that our top and qualified writers are here to help with any of your assignment. All you need to do is place an order with us.
Diagnosis of Pancreatitis
The diagnosis of pancreatitis is based on a history of abdominal pain, the presence of known risk factors, physical examination findings, and diagnostic findings.
Serum amylase and lipase levels. Although their elevation can be attributed to many causes, these are used in making a diagnosis, and serum lipase remain elevated for a longer period than amylase.
WBC count. The WBC count is usually elevated.
X-ray studies. X-ray studies of the abdomen and chest may be obtained to differentiate pancreatitis from other disorders that can cause similar symptoms.
Ultrasound. Ultrasound is used to identify an increase in the diameter of the pancreas.
Blood studies. Hemoglobin and hematocrit levels are used to monitor the patient for bleeding.
CT scan: Shows an enlarged pancreas pancreatic cysts and determines the extent of edema and necrosis.
Ultrasound of abdomen: May be used to identify pancreatic inflammation, abscess, pseudocysts, carcinoma, or obstruction of biliary tract
Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography: Useful to diagnose fistulas, obstructive biliary disease, and pancreatic duct strictures/anomalies (the procedure is contraindicated in an acute phase).
CT–guided needle aspiration: Done to determine whether the infection is present.
Abdominal x-rays: May demonstrate dilated loop of small bowel adjacent to the pancreas or another intra-abdominal precipitator of pancreatitis, presence of free intraperitoneal air caused by perforation or abscess formation, pancreatic calcification.
Upper GI series: Frequently exhibits evidence of pancreatic enlargement/inflammation.
Serum amylase: Increased because of obstruction of normal outflow of pancreatic enzymes (normal level does not rule out disease). It may be five or more times the normal level in acute pancreatitis.
Serum lipase: usually elevates along with amylase but stays elevated longer.
Serum bilirubin: Elevation is common (may be caused by alcoholic liver disease or compression of the common bile duct).
Alkaline phosphatase: Usually elevated if pancreatitis is accompanied by biliary disease.
Serum albumin and protein: Maybe decreased (increased capillary permeability and transudation of fluid into extracellular space).
Serum calcium: Hypocalcemia may appear 2–3 days after onset of illness (usually indicates fat necrosis and may accompany pancreatic necrosis).
Potassium: Hypokalemia may occur because of gastric losses; hyperkalemia may develop secondary to tissue necrosis, acidosis, renal insufficiency.
Triglycerides: Levels may exceed 1700 mg/dL and may be a causative agent in acute pancreatitis.
LDH/AST: May be elevated up to 15 times normal because of biliary and liver involvement.
CBC: WBC count of 10,000–25,000 is present in 80% of patients. Hb may be lowered because of bleeding. Hct is usually elevated (hemoconcentration associated with vomiting or fluid effusion into the pancreas or retroperitoneal area).
Serum glucose: Transient elevations of more than 200 mg/dL are common, especially during initial/acute attacks. Sustained hyperglycemia reflects widespread cell damage and pancreatic necrosis and is a poor prognostic sign.
Partial thromboplastin time (PTT): Prolonged if coagulopathy develops because of liver involvement and fat necrosis.
Urinalysis: Glucose, myoglobin, blood, and protein may be present.
Urine amylase: Can increase dramatically within 2–3 days after the onset of an attack.
Stool: Increased fat content (steatorrhea) indicative of insufficient digestion of fats and protein.
Nursing Care Plans for Pancreatitis Based on Diagnosis
Nursing Care Plan 1: Diagnosis – Acute Pain
May be related to:
- Obstruction of pancreatic biliary ducts
- Chemical contamination of peritoneal surfaces by pancreatic exudate/autodigestion of the pancreas
- Extension of inflammation to the retroperitoneal nerve plexus
Possibly evidenced by:
- Reports of pain
- Self-focusing, grimacing, distraction/guarding behaviors.
- Autonomic responses, alteration in muscle tone
Desired Outcomes
- Report pain is relieved/controlled.
- Follow prescribed therapeutic regimen.
- Demonstrate the use of methods that provide relief.
Nursing Interventions
Investigate verbal reports of pain, noting specific location and intensity (0–10 scale). Note factors that aggravate and relieve pain.
Rationale: Pain is often diffuse, severe, and unrelenting in acute or hemorrhagic pancreatitis. Severe pain is often the major symptom in patients with chronic pancreatitis. Isolated pain in the RUQ reflects the involvement of the head of the pancreas. Pain in the left upper quadrant (LUQ) suggests an involvement of the pancreatic tail. Localized pain may indicate the development of pseudocysts or abscesses.
Maintain bed rest during an acute attack. Provide a quiet, restful environment.
Rationale: Decreases metabolic rate and GI stimulation and secretions, thereby reducing pancreatic activity.
Promote position of comfort on one side with knees flexed, sitting up, and leaning forward.
Rationale: Reduces abdominal pressure and tension, providing some measure of comfort and pain relief. Note: Supine position often increases pain.
Provide alternative comfort measures (back rub), encourage relaxation techniques (guided imagery, visualization), quiet diversional activities (TV, radio).
Rationale: Promotes relaxation and enables the patient to refocus attention; may enhance coping.
Keep the environment free of food odors.
Rationale: Sensory stimulation can activate pancreatic enzymes, increasing pain.
Administer analgesics in a timely manner (smaller, more frequent doses).
Rationale: Severe and prolonged pain can aggravate shock and is more difficult to relieve, requiring larger doses of medication, which can mask underlying problems and complications and may contribute to respiratory depression.
Maintain meticulous skin care, especially in the presence of draining abdominal wall fistulas.
Rationale: Pancreatic enzymes can digest the skin and tissues of the abdominal wall, creating a chemical burn.
Administer medication as indicated:
Narcotic analgesics: meperidine (Demerol), fentanyl (Sublimaze), pentazocine (Talwin);
Rationale: Meperidine is usually effective in relieving pain and may be preferred over morphine, which can have a side effect of biliary-pancreatic spasms. Paravertebral block has been used to achieve prolonged pain control. Note: Pain in patients who have recurrent or chronic pancreatitis episodes may be difficult to manage because they may become dependent on the narcotics given for pain control.
Sedatives: diazepam (Valium);antispasmodics: atropine;
Rationale: Potentiates action of narcotic to promote rest and to reduce muscular and ductal spasm, thereby reducing metabolic needs enzyme secretions.
Antacids: Mylanta, Maalox, Amphojel, Riopan;
Rationale: Neutralizes gastric acid to reduce pancreatic enzymes’ production and reduce the incidence of upper GI bleeding.
Cimetidine (Tagamet), ranitidine (Zantac), famotidine (Pepcid)
Rationale: Decreasing secretion of HCl reduces stimulation of the pancreas and associated pain.
Withhold food and fluid as indicated.
Rationale: Limits and reduces the release of pancreatic enzymes and resultant pain.
Maintain gastric suction when used.
Rationale: Prevents accumulation of gastric secretions, which can stimulate pancreatic enzyme activity.
Prepare for surgical intervention if indicated.
Rationale: Surgical exploration may be required in the presence of intractable pain and complications involving the biliary tract, such as pancreatic abscess or pseudocyst.
As you continue reading remember that our top and qualified writers are here to help with any of your assignment. All you need to do is place an order with us.
Nursing Care Plan 2: Diagnosis – Risk for Deficient Fluid Volume
Risk factors may include:
- Excessive losses: vomiting, gastric suctioning
- Increase in size of the vascular bed (vasodilation, effects of kinins)
- Third-space fluid transudation, ascites formation
- Alteration of the clotting process, hemorrhage
Desired Outcomes
Maintain adequate hydration as evidenced by stable vital signs, good skin turgor, prompt capillary refill, strong peripheral pulses, and individually appropriate urinary output.
Nursing Interventions
Monitor BP and measure CVP if available.
Rationale: Fluid sequestration (shifts into third space), bleeding, and release of vasodilators (kinins) and cardiac depressant factor triggered by pancreatic ischemia may result in profound hypotension. Reduced cardiac output and poor organ perfusion secondary to a hypotensive episode can precipitate widespread systemic complications.
Measure I&O including vomiting, gastric aspirate, diarrhea. Calculate 24-hr fluid balance.
Rationale: Indicators of replacement needs and effectiveness of therapy.
Note the decrease in urine output (less than 400 mL per 24 hr).
Rationale: Oliguria may occur, signaling renal impairment and acute tubular necrosis (ATN), related to an increase in renal vascular resistance or reduced and altered renal blood flow.
Record color and character of gastric drainage, measure pH and note presence of occult blood.
Rationale: The risk of gastric bleeding and hemorrhage is high.
Weigh as indicated. Correlate with calculated fluid balance.
Rationale: Weight loss may suggest hypovolemia; however, edema, fluid retention, and ascites may be reflected by increased or stable weight, even in the presence of muscle wasting.
Note poor skin turgor, dry skin and mucous membranes, reports of thirst.
Rationale: Further physiological indicators of dehydration.
Observe and record peripheral and dependent edema. Measure abdominal girth if ascites are present.
Rationale: Edema and fluid shifts occur as a result of increased vascular permeability, sodium retention, and decreased colloid osmotic pressure in the intravascular compartment.Note: Fluid loss (sequestration) of more than 6 L per 48 hr is considered a poor prognostic sign.
Investigate changes in sensorium (confusion, slowed responses).
Rationale: Changes may be related to hypovolemia, hypoxia, electrolyte imbalance, or impending delirium tremens (inpatient with acute pancreatitis secondary to excessive alcohol intake). The severe pancreatic disease may cause toxic psychosis.
Auscultate heart sounds; note rate and rhythm. Monitor and document rhythm changes.
Rationale: Cardiac changes and dysrhythmias may reflect hypovolemia or electrolyte imbalance, commonly hypokalemia, and hypocalcemia. Hyperkalemia may occur related to tissue necrosis, acidosis, and renal insufficiency and may precipitate lethal dysrhythmias if uncorrected. S3 gallop in conjunction with JVD and crackles suggest HF or pulmonary edema. Note: Cardiovascular complications are common and include MI, pericarditis, and pericardial effusion with or without tamponade.
Inspect the skin for petechiae, hematomas, and unusual wound or venipuncture bleeding. Note hematuria, mucous membrane bleeding, and bloody gastric contents.
Rationale: DIC may be initiated by a release of active pancreatic proteases into the circulation. The most frequently affected organs are the kidneys, skin, and lungs.
Watch out for signs and symptoms of calcium deficiency. Observe and report coarse muscle tremors, twitching, positive Chvostek’s, Trousseau’s sign, tetany, cramps, carpopedal spasm, and seizures.
Rationale: Symptoms of calcium imbalance. Calcium binds with free fats in the intestine and is lost by excretion in the stool.
Keep airway and suction apparatus handy and pad side rails.
Rationale: If you suspect hypocalcemia
Administer fluid replacement as indicated (saline solutions, albumin, blood, blood products, dextran).
Rationale: Choice of replacement solution may be less important than rapidity and adequacy of volume restoration. Saline solutions and albumin may be used to promote the mobilization of fluid back into vascular space. Low-molecular-weight dextran is sometimes used to reduce the risk of renal dysfunction and pulmonary edema associated with pancreatitis.
Monitor laboratory studies (Hb and Hct, Protein, albumin, electrolytes, BUN, creatinine, urine osmolality, and sodium, potassium, coagulation studies).
Rationale: Identifies deficits and replacement needs and developing complications (ATN, DIC).
Replace electrolytes (sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium as indicated).
Rationale: Decreased oral intake and excessive losses greatly affect electrolyte and acid-base balance, which is necessary to maintain optimal cellular and organ function.
Prepare and assist with peritoneal lavage hemoperitoneum dialysis.
Rationale: Removes toxic chemicals and pancreatic enzymes and allows for more rapid correction of metabolic abnormalities in severe and unresponsive cases of acute pancreatitis.
Nursing Care Plan 3: Diagnosis – Imbalanced Nutrition: Less Than Body Requirements
May be related to:
- Vomiting decreased oral intake; prescribed dietary restrictions
- Loss of digestive enzymes and insulin (related to pancreatic outflow obstruction or necrosis/autodigestion)
Possibly evidenced by:
- Reported inadequate food intake
- Aversion to eating, reported altered taste sensation, lack of interest in food.
- Weight loss
- Poor muscle tone
Desired Outcome
- Demonstrate progressive weight gain toward the goal with normalization of laboratory values
- Experience no signs of malnutrition.
- Demonstrate behaviors lifestyle changes to regain and/or maintain an appropriate weight.
Nursing Interventions
Assess abdomen, noting the presence and character of bowel sounds, abdominal distension, and reports of nausea.
Rationale: Gastric distention and intestinal atony are frequently present, resulting in reduced and absent bowel sounds. Return of bowel sounds and relief of symptoms signal readiness for discontinuation of gastric aspiration (NG tube).
Provide frequent oral care.
Rationale: Decreases vomiting stimulus and inflammation and irritation of dry mucous membranes associated with dehydration and mouth breathing when NG is in place.
Assist patient in selecting food and fluids that meet nutritional needs and restrictions when the diet is resumed.
Rationale: Previous dietary habits may be unsatisfactory in meeting current tissue regeneration and healing needs. Use of gastric stimulants (caffeine, alcohol, cigarettes, gas-producing foods) or ingestion of large meals may result in excessive stimulation of the pancreas and recurrence of symptoms.
Observe color, consistency, and amount of stools. Note frothy consistency and foul odor.
Rationale: Steatorrhea may develop from incomplete digestion of fats.
Note signs of increased thirst and urination or changes in mentation and visual acuity.
Rationale: May warn of developing hyperglycemia associated with increased release of glucagon (damage to [beta] cells) or decreased release of insulin (damage to [beta] cells).
Test urine for sugar and acetone.
Rationale: Early detection of inadequate glucose utilization may prevent the development of ketoacidosis.
Maintain NPO status and gastric suctioning in the acute phase.
Rationale: Prevents stimulation and release of pancreatic enzymes (secretin), released when chyme and HCl enter the duodenum.
Administer hyperalimentation and lipids, if indicated.
Rationale: IV administration of calories, lipids, and amino acids should be instituted before nutrition and nitrogen depletion are advanced.
Resume oral intake with clear liquids and advance diet slowly to provide a high-protein, high-carbohydrate diet, when indicated.
Rationale: Oral feedings given too early in the course of illness may exacerbate symptoms. Loss of pancreatic function and reduced insulin production may require the initiation of a diabetic diet.
Provide medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) (MCT, Portagen).
Rationale: MCTs are elements of enteral feedings (NG or J-tube) that provide supplemental calories and nutrients that do not require pancreatic enzymes for digestion and absorption.
Administer medications as indicated:
Vitamins: A,D,E,K;
Rationale: Replacement is required because fat metabolism is altered, reducing absorption and storage of fat-soluble vitamins.
Replacement enzymes: pancreatin (Dizymes) pancrelipase (Viokase, Cotazym).
Rationale: Used in chronic pancreatitis to correct deficiencies to promote digestion and absorption of nutrients.
Monitor serum glucose.
Rationale: Indicator of insulin needs because hyperglycemia is frequently present, although not usually in levels high enough to produce ketoacidosis.
Provide insulin as appropriate.
Rationale: Corrects persistent hyperglycemia caused by injury to cells and increased release of glucocorticoids. Insulin therapy is usually short-term unless permanent damage to the pancreas occurs.
As you continue reading remember that our top and qualified writers are here to help with any of your assignment. All you need to do is place an order with us.
Nursing Care Plan 4: Diagnosis – Risk for Infection
Risk factors may include:
- Inadequate primary defenses: stasis of body fluids, altered peristalsis, change in pH of secretions
- Immunosuppression
- Nutritional deficiencies
- Tissue destruction, chronic disease
Desired Outcomes
- Achieve timely healing be free of signs of infection.
- Be afebrile
- Participate in activities to reduce the risk of infection.
Nursing Interventions
Use strict aseptic techniques when changing surgical dressings or working with IV lines, indwelling catheters and tubes, drains. Change soiled dressings promptly.
Rationale: Limits sources of infection, which can lead to sepsis in a compromised patient. Note: Studies indicate that infectious complications are responsible for about 80% of deaths associated with pancreatitis.
Stress the importance of good handwashing.
Rationale: Reduces risk of cross-contamination.
Observe the rate and characteristics of respirations breath sounds. Note the occurrence of cough and sputum production.
Rationale: Fluid accumulation and limited mobility predispose to respiratory infections and atelectasis. Accumulation of ascites fluid may cause elevated diaphragm and shallow abdominal breathing.
Encourage frequent position changes, deep breathing, and coughing. Assist with ambulation as soon as stable.
Rationale: Enhances ventilation of all lung segments and promotes mobilization of secretions.
Observe for signs of infection:
Fever and respiratory distress in conjunction with jaundice;
Rationale: Cholestatic jaundice and decreased pulmonary function may be the first sign of sepsis involving Gram-negative organisms.
Increased abdominal pain, rigidity, and rebound tenderness diminished and absent bowel sounds;
Rationale: Suggestive of peritonitis.
Increased abdominal pain and tenderness, recurrent fever (higher than 101°F), leukocytosis, hypotension, tachycardia, and chills.
Rationale: Abscesses can occur 2 wk or more after the onset of pancreatitis (mortality can exceed 50%) and should be suspected whenever a patient is deteriorating despite supportive measures.
Obtain culture specimens (blood, wound, urine, sputum, or pancreatic aspirate).
Rationale: Identifies presence of infection and causative organism.
Administer antibiotic therapy as indicated: cephalosporins, cefoxitin sodium (Mefoxin); plus aminoglycosides: gentamicin (Garamycin), tobramycin (Nebcin).
Rationale: Broad-spectrum antibiotics are generally recommended for sepsis; however, therapy will be based on the specific organisms cultured.
Prepare for surgical intervention as necessary.
Rationale: Abscesses may be surgically drained with resection of necrotic tissue. Sump tubes may be inserted for antibiotic irrigation and drainage of pancreatic debris. Pseudocysts (persisting for several weeks) may be drained because of the risk and incidence of infection and rupture.
Nursing Care Plan 5: Diagnosis – Acute pain
It is related to inflammation of the pancreas and surrounding tissue, biliary tract disease, obstruction of pancreatic ducts, and interruption of the blood supply.
Possibly evidenced by:
- Observed evidence of pain
- Guarding behavior
- Protective gestures
- Positioning to avoid pain
- Sleep disturbances (eyes lackluster, beaten look, fixed or scattered movement
- Expressive behavior (restlessness, moaning, crying, vigilance, irritability, sighing)
- Distraction behavior (pacing, seeking out other people)
- Change in muscle tone
- Diaphoresis
Desired Outcomes
- A patient will report pain is relieved/controlled.
- A patient will follow the prescribed pharmacological regimen.
- Verbalize nonpharmacologic methods that provide relief.
- Demonstrate use of relaxation skills and diversional activities, as indicated, for an individual situation
Nursing Interventions
Note client’s locus of control (internal/external)
Rationale: Individuals with an external locus of control may take little or no responsibility for pain management.
Accept client’s description of pain.
Rationale: Pain is a subjective experience that others cannot feel.
Note when pain occurs.
Rationale: To medicate prophylactically, as appropriate.
Provide comfort measures.
Rationale: To promote nonpharmacological pain management.
Encourage adequate rest periods.
Rationale: To prevent fatigue
Administer analgesics as indicated to maximum dosage, as needed.
Rationale: To maintain an acceptable level of pain.
Evaluate and document client’s response to analgesia and assist in transitioning or changing drug regimen based on individual needs.
Rationale: Increasing or decreasing dosage, stepped program (switching from injection to oral route, increased time span as the pain lessens) helps in self-management of pain.
